COMPOSITION, CARE, & CLEANING OF DIFFERENT SURFACES

  
   

COMPOSITION, CARE, & CLEANING OF DIFFERENT SURFACES

Hard surfaces are found in various forms, in different areas, in all hospitality establishments.

To keep the hotel property looking as fresh as it did the day it first opened, housekeeping employees involved in the care and maintenance of these hard surfaces must know the composition of these surfaces.

The type of hard surfaces commonly used in hotels include:

1. Metals
2. Glass
3. Plastics
4. Ceramics
5. Wood
6. Stone, etc.

In addition to these, housekeeping staff are also responsible for the care and cleaning of surfaces such as leather, rubber, etc.

1. METALS

The most commonly used metals are:

1. Silver
2. Steel
3. Copper
4. Brass
5. Bronze,
6. Aluminium
7. Iron

These metals may be used in door and window fittings, wall panels, light fittings, sanitaryware, restaurant cutlery, cooking utensils, guestroom accessories (such as ashtrays, vases, and picture frames), and furniture (such as beds, chairs, and tables).

Most metal surfaces get tarnished, scratched, or rusted unless treated or protected.

These metals may be used in door and window fittings, wall panels, light fittings, sanitaryware, restaurant cutlery, cooking utensils, guestroom accessories (such as ashtrays, vases, and picture frames), and furniture (such as beds, chairs, and tables).

Most metal surfaces get tarnished, scratched, or rusted unless treated or protected.

These metals may be used in door and window fittings, wall panels, light fittings, sanitaryware, restaurant cutlery, cooking utensils, guestroom accessories (such as ashtrays, vases, and picture frames), and furniture (such as beds, chairs, and tables).

Most metal surfaces get tarnished, scratched, or rusted unless treated or protected.

a) Silver

This soft, malleable, ductile metal has a brilliant sheen when well polished.

Small amounts of the metal in elemental form occur naturally in the earth, but most of the silver we use is extracted from silver ores.

Silver is chemically unaffected by pure water, pure air, and a majority of food stuffs, but gets scratched easily if pure.

Silver is used as the plating in electroplated nickel silver, for making cutlery, utensils, vases, and decorative artefacts.

Types of Silver

Sterling Silver

Silver-Plated (EPNS)

Sterling Silver

Sterling silver is an alloy containing 92.5 per cent silver, and the rest is mainly copper.

Sterling silver is more expensive than silver-plated alloy and for this reason is seldom used in hotels.

Silver-Plated (EPNS)

Table silver or ‘silverware’ is usually made of silver-plated alloy by plating ‘blanks’ of nickel silver alloy. ‘Nickel silver’ does not contain any silver at all;

It(Nickel Silver) is a term for alloys that look like silver (being white metal) and made of nickel, copper, and often(but not always) brass, along with a few other metals for added strength and shine.

Cleaning Procedures

Silver needs to be cleaned and polished on a regular basis.

When it gets tarnished, more complex cleaning methods have to be employed.

Following are the cleaning & polishing methods for silver:

Regular Cleaning	Silver Dip	Polivit or Aluminium-Soda method
Burnishing Machine	Plate-Powder Method

I. Regular Cleaning

• Wash the article in a hot solution of synthetic detergent, scrubbing with a piece of cotton cloth.
• Then rinse in clean boiling water in an enameled tray.
• A sheet of alunimium and some soda can be placed in the tray.
• Once the articles are clean, drain the water away and wipe dry while it is still warm, rubbing hard with a lint-free linen cloth or chamois leather.

II. Silver-Dip Method

• A silver dip solution is used when tarnished silver is to be cleaned.
• It is usually a pink coloured liquid based on an acid solution of a compound into which the articles are immersed completely for removal of tarnish.
• The silver should remain in the liquid for a very short time, the articles should be lifted out, washed with warm water and dried.
• While working with silver dip, stainless steel containers should not be used since the dip attacks steel.
• Enamel or plastic containers must be used instead.
• Silver dip should not be used too frequently on the silver, either, since it is harder on silver because of a chemical reaction between the silver and the liquid that can corrode the metal.
• However, many establishments use silver dip frequently since it is faster than other methods.

III. Polivit Method

• Polivit is an aluminium metal sheet containing holes, which is best used in an enamel bowl or galvanized iron bowl.
• The polivit is placed in the bowl together with some soda.
• The silver to be cleaned is then put into the bowl, ensuring that at least the one piece of silver has contact with the polivit.
• Sufficient boiling water is poured into the bowl to cover the silver being cleaned has contact with the polivit.

• A chemical reaction takes place between the polivit, soda, boiling water and silver which causes the tarnish to be lifted.
• After 2-4 minutes, silver should be removed from the bowl and placed into the 2nd bowl of boiling and then rinsed.
• On removal from the second bowl the silver is allowed to drain and then polished with a clean cloth and then dried with a tea cloth.

IV. Burnishing Machine

• This is a revolving drum with a safety shield. In this revolving drum, highly polished steel balls are immersed in a detergent solution with silver articles.
• The machine rotates and the friction from the steel balls polishes the silver.
• These articles are then rinsed into hot water and dried.
• The burnishing machine is used for polishing large quantities of silver articles.
• Care should be taken to keep the ball bearings covered with water when not in use, since they rust rapidly otherwise.
• V. Plate-Powder Method
• This pink powder should be mixed with just enough methylated spirit to make a smooth paste.
• Alternatively water may be used; but methylated spirit is preferred since it evaporates faster and the silverware is then available for polishing much more quickly.
• The smooth paste is rubbed thoroughly onto the silver article with a clean rag and left to dry. It is then rubbed off with rags.
• The article should now be rinsed well in boiling water and buffed with a clean cloth.
• Though this method is time consuming but it gives a good result.

b) Steel

Steel is an alloy of iron.

The alloy contains mainly iron and carbon; other materials are found in small quantities.

It is used in the form of pressed chrome steel for the manufacture of baths, sinks, and so on.

Stainless steel is used in making cutlery, protective paneling, sanitaryware, furniture, trays, and cooking utensils.

Steel is sometimes galvanized or enameled to prevent corrosion.

If an enameled steel surface gets stained, it can be washed with a mild liquid abrasive.

Types of steel commonly used

Chrome Steel

Stainless Steel

Galvanized Steel

Chrome Steel

Steel is coated with chromium for manufacturing taps, bath handles, shower fittings, and so on.

These can become spotted with water marks or get greased, but they do not tarnish.

Stainless Steel

This is steel to which 8-25 per cent of chromium has been added, making it corrosion-resistant.

Stainless steel is tough, durable, and can take a mirror-polished finish. It is used in making cutlery, sinks, WCs, and so on.

For spoons and forks, steel containing 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel is generally used.

However, even stainless steel can be harmed by silver-dip solutions, acidic solutions, salt-vinegar mixtures, and excessive heat.

Galvanized Steel

Steel may be coated with zinc (galvanized) to prevent tarnishing.

This kind of steel is used for making buckets.

Cleaning Procedures

Stainless steel is washed in a hot solution of synthetic detergent using a soft nylon scrubber, rinsed with clean water and immediately dried thoroughly with a linen cloth.

The use of harsh abrasives should be avoided as they may scratch the surface.

Chrome steel and galvanized steel are wiped or washed with synthetic detergent solution, stains removed with soft steel-wool, the articles rinsed with clean water, and buffed with a linen cloth.

For cleaning greasy stains, sodium bicarbonate can be used on all types of steel.

c) Copper

• This metal with an orange-brown shade has a light sheen of its own.
• It is used for wall paneling and counter tops in bars and restaurants; bowls, vases, and urns in lobbies and guestrooms; and utensils in the kitchen.
• Copper is even used in cutlery and serving dishes in some ethnic Indian restaurants.
• Copper cookware should be lined with tin or nickel for protection, as the copper may react adversely with some foods.
• Cleaning Procedure
• Copper is washed in warm water and then rubbed with a mixture of salt, fine sand, and vinegar, using rags, to clean.
• It is then rinsed in warm water and dried with a smooth cloth.

• A thin coat of vegetable oil is applied to the surface to retard further tarnish.
• In case of heavily tarnished copper, a weak ammonia solution will remove the greenish deposits on the surface.

d) Brass

• This is a golden-brown alloy of copper and zinc. It is used in making door and window fittings, stair rods and railings, foot rails in bars, taps, ashtrays, and ornaments.
• Brass tarnishes and scratches easily.
• To avoid this, brass fixtures are usually lacquered.
• Cleaning Procedure
• To clean brass articles, remove surface dirt with a duster and rub the article with a paste made of white flour, salt, and vinegar in equal parts.
• This will remove mild tarnish. Make sure to rub away all the mixture.
• Corroded brass should be treated with spirit of salt (hydrochloric acid) and then rinsed thoroughly.
• Polish with Brasso, using damp rags or cotton
• A long-term hard-metal polish can also be used on brass.

e) Bronze

• This is a brown alloy of copper and tin. It is used primarily in making works of art and medals.
• It does not tarnish easily.
• Cleaning Procedure
• To clean a bronze article, wash well with water and then apply a mixture of one part muriatic acid and two parts water with a piece of flannel.
• Allow the solution to dry and then polish the bronze well with vegetable oil.

f) Aluminium

• This silvery, lightweight metal is highly malleable, and ductile.
• It is used to make light fittings, and other utensils.
• Aluminium is not tarnished by air.
• It is, however, damaged by soda and other alkalis as well as stained by acids.
• It also scratches and bends easily.
• Cleaning Procedure
• To clean aluminium, wash in a hot solution of synthetic detergents, using soft steel-wool to scrub.
• Use mild abrasives only in the case of difficult stains.
• Discolouration in saucepans can be removed by boiling a solution of water and lemon juice in them, rinsing and then drying.
• In case of aluminium showpieces, some liquid wax polish may be applied to maintain the gloss.

g) Iron

• This silver-white metal of great strength is used in making furniture, buckets, dustbins, and cookware. Iron can be forged or cast.
• Wrought iron is iron that has been forged, that is, it has been shaped by heating in fire and then hammering while hot.
• Cast iron is a hard alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon that has been cast in a mould.
• Non-enameled cast iron is flame and oven proof.
• Maintenance
• Utensils made of cast iron need to be seasoned before first use to prevent rusting.
• Before seasoning, the article has to be washed in mild soap and water, then thoroughly dried.
• Seasoning is done by rubbing the inside surface with vegetable oil and heating in a slow oven for about two hours.
• Enameled cast-iron utensils do not need seasoning and are easier to clean.
• If handled carelessly, however, the enamel may chip away.
• If the utensils are put under cold water immediately after use, while still hot, the enamel may gain flake off.
• Therefore, before cleaning, allow the utensil to cool gradually.
• Cleaning Procedure
• Unprotected iron should be washed only when necessary and then thoroughly dried.
• Galvanized iron needs regular washing and thorough drying.
• Rust can be removed from galvanized items with fine steel-wool dampened with oxalic acid.
• Do not store iron in damp areas.
• Before long-term storage, coat with oil or black lead (graphite).

2. Glass

Glass is a transparent, lustrous, and brittle material made from silica or sand.

A mixture of pure, fine sand, soda or potash, and other ingredients is carefully measured out.

This is called ‘batch’.

The batch is fed into a furnace and heated to an extremely high temperature, above 1300 degree Celsius, where it fuses into molten glass.

From the furnace, the molten glass is led away for shaping.

After shaping, the glass is cooled by a process called ‘annealing’.

Glass is used in making:

Doors

Windows

Furniture

Vases

Lighting fixtures

Mirrors

Partitions

Tableware

Kitchenware, and

Bottles.

Types of Glass

Flat glass

Fibreglass

Obscured Glass

Safety Glass

Cut Glass

a) Flat Glass

It is usually soda-lime glass, used in making windows, table tops, and shelves.

Flat glass can be of two types:

Sheet Glass or Plate Glass:

This type of glass is used as ordinary windows and picture glass.

Float Glass:

It provides clear transparency, used in shop windows, mirrors, and protective covering for furniture.

b) Fibreglass

Glass can be manufactured as a textile fibre, which may be used for making curtains and fire blankets.

Fibreglass may also be manufactured as rigid sheets of plastic or other material with glass filaments embedded for strength.

Fibreglass is fire-proof, impermeable, and resistant to damage by pests, sunlight, or air.

c) Obscured Glass

This is a type actually derived from sheet or float glass.

It is textured from one side, so that some light passes through and some is blocked or distorted, so that the material is not entirely transparent.

It is used in making bathroom windows and the areas where privacy is desired.

d) Hollow Glassware

This is produced by blowing, moulding, and pressing molten glass into the desired shapes.

e) Safety Glass

This is another kind of glass that is made from sheet or float glass in various ways:

Obscured glass with wire	Toughened Glass
Laminated Glass	Toughened and Laminated Glass

1) Obscured Glass with wire

Wire is incorporated in obscured glass during the rolling process.

If broken, the glass pieces will be held in place by the wire until knocked out of the ‘frame’ for repair.

2) Laminated Glass

This consists of two thin sheets of glass with transparent plastic sandwiched between them.

If a laminated glass sheet breaks, the glass pieces will adhere to the plastic layer.

3) Toughened Glass

This is made by heating the glass sheet to a temperature just below softening point and then cooling the surface rapidly.

4) Toughened & Laminated Glass

This safety glass is made by the combination of the above mentioned two methods laminating and toughening.

This combination creates a glass five times tougher than other safety glasses.

f) Cut Glass

• This glass is expensive and used for chandeliers, vases and quality glassware.
• Cleaning Procedure (Flat Glass)
• Even slight marks and smudges show prominently on glass surfaces.
• Therefore glass surfaces, especially flat sheets, require frequent cleaning.
• Dusting should be done daily with a lint-free cloth.
• Damp dusting needs to be done whenever necessary. Light soiling and greasy fingerprints should be wiped away with a solution of vinegar and water (1:1) or a solution of 9ml liquid ammonia in approximately 1 litre of water.
• Glass cleaners applied with a sponge also clean glass effectively.
• For cleaning larger surfaces, a small window squeegee may be used.
• Stubborn marks on mirrors—such as toothpaste deposits, hair-spray, and make-up—should be removed by wiping with a cloth moistened with methylated spirit.
• Newsprint contains an effective solvent, therefore newspaper can be used to remove marks from windows too.
• Use a lint-free cloth to dry the glass surface afterwards.
• Cleaning of Hollow glassware & other articles
• Textured or engraved glass ware should be cleaned whenever necessary, using a soft nylon brush.
• Abrasives should be avoided.
• Discoloured or stained bottles and vases can be cleaned using a mixture of crushed eggshells, synthetic detergents, and warm water.
• For jars and bottles, a mixture of construction sand and water can also be used to remove discolouration.
• Alternatively, clean by filling them one-fourth full with a mixture of vinegar and water (1:1) and add a few potato pieces, gently shaking till the marks disappear.
• To remove lime deposits from hard water in water jugs, vases, and tumblers, soak the items in distilled water for an hour, scrub with a nylon scrubber and synthetic detergent solution, and rinse with water.
• Dry the articles with a lint-free cloth.

Chandelier Cleaning

• Chandeliers are usually featured in the public areas i.e. in lobbies, banquet halls, and VIP suites.
• They can be cleaned either by bringing down and cleaning each piece with spirit or it can be cleaned insite where the chandelier is very large.
• Cleaning chandeliers is a time-consuming laborious process; but it should be done with utmost care since parts from a chandelier , once broken, may not be easy to replace.
• For cleaning purpose, chandeliers are taken down, dismantled piece by piece, and dipped into a warm solution of synthetic detergent.
• Each piece is then gently cleaned with a nylon scrubber and rinsed in clean warm water.
• A second rinsing is done in a mixture of one teaspoon liquid ammonia in 2 ½ litres of water.
• This results in a brilliant sparkle.
• Another method, which is more efficient, uses an upholstery shampooing machine.
• The machine sprays a detergent solution through a fine nozzle with enough pressure to clean each prism.
• The dripping wash water is collected in a catch basin or cloth installed below the chandelier.

3. Plastics

Plastics are resinous synthetic polymers that have the following qualities, advantages and disadvantages:

• They are light in weight.
• They are quiet in use.
• They are resistant to most chemicals.
• They are non-conductors of electricity.
• They are easy to clean.
• They are largely non-absorbent, except thermoplastics, which absorb grease.
• They are resistant to moths and other pests.
• They can be scratched if harsh abrasives are used on them.
• They have a tendency to discolour and crack.
• They produce toxic fumes on burning.
• They attract dust due to static electricity.
• They are non-biodegradable.

Uses of Plastic

In the hospitality industry alone, they are used in making furniture, wall coverings, floor coverings, cleaning equipments, etc.

Types of Plastics

Thermoplastics

Thermosetting Plastics

A. Thermoplastics

• These are soft plastic that soften when exposed to heat and harden again when cool.
• Most of the plastic materials used in hotels fall under this group.
• Some thermoplastics are heat-sensitive while others may withstand higher temperatures.
• Thermoplastics include acrylics, polyesters, PVC derivatives, and some other plastics produced as synthetic fibres.

B. Thermosetting Plastics

• These are hard plastics that are moulded by heat and pressure and do not usually soften when they are reheated.
• Examples of thermosetting plastics are melamine, phenolics and laminates.

Melamine

• This group of plastics in making tableware, trays, laminated worktops and shelves.

Phenolics

• These are used in making buckets, door handles, electrical fittings, and laminates.
• Phenolic plastics are not affected even by boiling water, so that they are suitable for making kitchenware.

Laminates

• Melamine, phenolics, and other plastic resins are together used to produce plastic laminates.
• Plastic laminates may be stuck directly to wall surfaces, to plywood, or to other supporting material.
• They may also be used for making wall panels, countertops, and furniture.
• Cleaning & Maintenance Procedures
• Plastic surfaces are easy to clean and maintain.
• Daily damp-dusting should be done since plastic attracts dust due to static electricity.
• Light soilage can be removed by wiping with a warm solution of synthetic detergent, followed by rinsing and air-drying.
• Stains should be removed by rubbing with a cloth soaked in methylated spirit.

Precautions that help in the maintenance of plastics:

• Do not expose to direct heat, such as from cigarette butts, hotplates, and so on.
• Do not use harsh abrasives.
• Do not buff with a dry cloth.
• Do not apply strong acids or alkalis.
• Do not drag heavy objects over plastic surfaces.

4. Ceramics

• Ceramics are made from sand and clay.
• Different proportions and types of clay are mixed with other ingredients to produce various kinds of ceramics.
• Ceramics are glazed and if unglazed the articles remain highly porous.
• Ceramics are used for making sanitary fittings, drain pipes, vases, floor tiles, wall tiles and finishes, cooking utensils, and crockery.
• Ceramics should be handled with care since they are prone to cracking and chipping.
• Ceramic plates used in hotels usually have rolled edges to avoid the problem of chipping at the rim.

China

The word ‘china’ is a broad term which covers all ‘clayware’ used for crockery and sanitary fittings, and includes glazed and vitrified earthenware, bone china and porcelain.

Types of Ceramics

Earthenware

Porcelain

Bone China

a) Earthenware

This thick, heavy, porous material is used in making jugs, bowls, vases, and ashtrays.

Earthenware should be handled with care, as it chips and breaks easily.

This types of ceramic may also be glazed or vitrified.

Glazed Earthenware:

It contains fine white clay which makes it thick and opaque and then glaze is applied on the surface as this clay structure is highly porous.

Vitrified Earthenware:

Also known as vitreous china and it is very hard, stronger, heavier, less easily chipped, and more expensive than other kinds of earthenware.

b) Porcelain

• This is made from kaolin (china clay) and china stone or feldspar.
• Porcelain has a translucent body and a transparent glaze.
• It is an extremely hard and strong ceramic. Since it is extremely expensive, it is not much used in hotel establishments.
• Porcelain can, however, be used to make cups, saucers, and other types of crockery.

c) Bone China

• Bone china contains bone ash and china clay.
• The addition of bone makes the clay easier to work and gives it strength.
• It is very thin but strong and impervious.
• Harsh abrasives should be avoided as designs are often applied to the outer surface of this material.
• Bone china is used to make fine cups, saucers, and other types of crockery.
• Cleaning Procedure
• Ceramics should be handled with care during cleaning since they are easily cracked and chipped.
• Extremely hot or too cold water should be avoided.
• A warm, neutral synthetic detergent solution should be used for cleaning ceramics.
• The articles must be rinsed thoroughly and dried with a lint-free duster.
• Stains may be removed by rubbing with a damp cloth to which sodium bicarbonate has been applied.

5. Wood

• Wood is hard, compact, fibrous, and porous. Good wood makes for a rich, warm, and beautiful surface.
• It is a versatile surface material with its varied colours and different patterns and

is used throughout hotel establishments.

• Being a porous material, wood absorbs water as well as dust.
• It is also prone to fungal attacks and pest infestations.

Types of Wood

Solid Wood	Woven Stems
Wood Boards	Cork

A. Solid Wood

Depending on its strength and resilience, it may be hard or soft wood.

Hard Wood:

These are obtained from broad-leaved trees and most popular woods are teak, oak, ash, beech, walnut and rosewood.

Soft Wood:

These are obtained from coniferous trees.

Commonly used softwoods are pine, fir, cedar, and rubberwood.

B. Wood Boards

A variety of wood boards are available at significantly cheaper rates than solid wood.

These are much lighter than solid wood and most have undergone treatments such as termite-proofing and waterproofing.

Types of Wood Boards

Hardboard	Blockboard
Plywood	Chipboard

I. Hard Board

This is a type of thin, flexible board made of compressed and processed wood-pulp fibre.

It is smooth on one side and has a mesh-like texture on the reverse.

It is used to make doorpanels, picture backings, cupboards and wardrobe backings, bases of drawers etc.

II. Plywood

This type of board is manufactured by gluing together many thin sheets of hardwood, which are termed ‘plies’.

Since it does not have good visual appeal compare to solid wood, however, it is often veneered with hardwood or laminated.

It is used to make tables, desks, shelves, countertops, and cupboards.

III. Blockboard

Each blockboard is made up of plywood veneers laid over a core of wood strips.

The inner strips of wood may be upto 3cm in thickness, making the board strong and durable.

It is used for making worktops, tabletops, and shelves.

IV. Chipboard

This type of board is manufactured from compressed wood chips and synthetic resin.

It is strong and heavy.

Like plywood, this too is often veneered or laminated.

Chipboard is used for making closets, cabinets, drawers, wardrobes, and worktops.

3. Woven Stems

Cane and wicker are included in this class.

Both materials are used in making woven items such as bread-baskets, flower-baskets, trays, sofas, chairs, tables, and beds.

Cane and wicker products are usually cheaper than solid wood.

4. Cork

This is a material obtained from the outer, light-brown bark of the cork oak.

The bark is ground into large granules, mixed with synthetic resin, pressed into sheets at high temperature and pressure, and then cut into tiles or strips of varying widths.

Cork has warm and restful appearance. It has also excellent acoustic properties.

Protective Treatments for Wood

Wood surfaces often require extra protection since they are mostly porous and absorb moisture.

They also tend to get stained and scratched.

The most common treatments are listed below:

Beeswax

Varnish

Lacquer

French Polish

Paint

a. Beeswax

This is the comb material secreted by bees.

It is applied to solid wood furniture and floors.

It should be allowed to dry and rubbed in well to get a good gloss.

b. Varnish

This is a clear, pale solution of a resinous substance dissolved in oil, turpentine, or alcohol.

Varnish forms a hard and transparent film on the wood surface.

Varnish is most commonly applied on wooden floors, furniture, and doors.

c. Lacquer

It is applied to wood furniture and provides a glossy finish or matt finish.

It is damaged by water, heat and solvents.

d. French Polish

This is a solution of shellac and methylated spirit.

It is applied on small furniture items made of solid wood.

However, this finish is easily damaged by water, heat, and solvents.

e. Paint

The function of paint may be to provide protection or decoration or both.

The unique property of paint is that it also lends colour along with protection to the wood surface.

This finish, however, is damaged by abrasives and heat.

Care & Cleaning

• Wood, being porous, deteriorates in contact with an excess of water.
• Therefore, the least possible amount of water should be used for cleaning wood.
• Always dry-dust the surface first with an impregnated mop, or vacuum-clean.
• Then remove excess soiling by damp-dusting in case of small articles and light damp-mopping for larger surfaces.
• Wooden floor surfaces need to be buffed with a floor polisher two times a week.
• Spills and stains should be removed immediately from wood surfaces so that they are not absorbed into the surface.
• Cork should only be dusted or vacuumed daily.

6. Leather

• Leather is made from the skins of various animals including sheep, goat, pigs, and cattle.
• It is one of the most durable and versatile of all natural materials.
• The skins are treated in various ways to give different varieties of leather, ranging from the soft, flexible types to tougher types.
• Leather can be dyed in a variety of colours and is used for belts, shoes, gloves, purses, wallets, luggage, upholstery, desktops, and book bindings.
• Leather is expensive and should be kept supple to prevent cracking.
• Leather also picks up oil and grease readily.
• Cleaning Procedure
• General cleaning of leather involves daily dusting or suction cleaning.
• In case of soiling, wipe the leather with a soft cloth wrung out of warm water and mild synthetic detergent.
• Follow with a damp-dusting with clean water and then dry thoroughly.
• Occasionally leather may be polished with a good furniture polish cream to keep it supple.
• Solvents should not be used on leather as they will stiffen it.

7. Stone

Stones are used mainly as floor finishes and external wall surfaces.

Other areas where they may be found are table tops, countertops and tops of vanity unit, furniture, decorative idols, and ashtrays.

Stones such as marble are often used as flooring and on walls in luxury bathrooms.

Natural Stones in Use

Marble	Sandstone	Granite
Quartzite	Slate

Marble

It is available in many colours and pattern such as white, black, grey, green, brown, and pink.

Sandstone

This sedimentary rock is composed of compressed sand.

Granite

This is a granular, crystalline stone composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Quartzite

This is a compact granular stone made up of silica.

Slate

This is a grey or blue-grey stone formed when layers of mud and silt build up and solidify over millions of years.

These layers allow slate to be easily made into slabs.

Maintenance & Cleaning

Stone surfaces may be cleaned using synthetic detergent and hot water.

Stains may be removed using fine abrasives.

For large areas, a wet-pickup vacuum cleaner may be used.

Use of acids and strong alkalis should be avoided, as they may cause pits on the surface.